Psychologist B.F. Skinner coined the term in 1937.
Primary and Secondary Reinforcement
Reinforcements can be either primary or secondary.
Primary Reinforcement
Primary reinforcement, which is sometimes referred to as unconditional reinforcement, occurs naturally.
Thomas Barwick / Taxi / Getty Images
Examples of primary reinforcers include:
Genetics may also play a role in primary reinforcement.
Secondary Reinforcement
Secondary reinforcementinvolves stimuli that have become rewarding by being paired with another reinforcing stimulus.
In applied behavior analysis (ABA), this is also known as conditioned reinforcement.
For example, when training a dog, praise and treats might be used as primary reinforcers.
The sound of a clicker can be added, with praise and treats as a secondary reinforcer.
Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone begins to work as a conditioned reinforcer.
Both influence behavior but in different ways.
“Instead, think of what these terms would mean when used mathematically.
Positive is the equivalent of a plus sign, meaning something is added to or applied to the situation.
Negative is the equivalent of a minus sign, meaning something is removed or subtracted from the situation.
after you throw a pitch.
Because of this, you’re more likely to pitch the ball the same way again.
This is an example of positive reinforcement.
This is an example of negative reinforcement.
Another example is if you slather aloe vera gel on a sunburn to prevent the burn from hurting.
Applying the gel prevents an aversive outcome (pain), so this is an example of negative reinforcement.
During the early stages of learning, continuous reinforcement is often used.
Once a behavior has been acquired, a partial reinforcement schedule can be used.
When used appropriately, this can be an effective learning tool to encourage desirable behaviors and discourage undesirable ones.
It’s important to remember that what constitutes reinforcement can vary from one person to another.
Shahan TA.Conditioned reinforcement and response strength.J Exp Anal Behav.
2010;93(2):269289. doi:10.1901/jeab.2010.93-269
Staddon JE, Cerutti DT.Operant conditioning.Annu Rev Psychol.
2003;54:115-144. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145124
University of Iowa, Comparative Cognition Laboratory.Reinforcement.
2021;33(12):2523-2535. doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01776
Servedio M.Reinforcement and the genetics of nonrandom mating.Evolution.
2000;54(1):21-29.
University of Central Florida.General psychology: Reinforcement and punishment.
2011;44(1):175-179. doi:10.1901/jaba.2011.44-175
Hockenbury SE, Nolan SA, Hockenbury DH.Psychology.
Skinner BF.Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis.
